How Do Cattle Vaccines Work?

Vaccines stimulate the immune system to recognize and defend against harmful pathogens, such as viruses or bacteria, without causing disease. They contain weakened, inactivated, or specific components of the pathogen that trigger an immune response. The immune system recognizes these components as foreign invaders and produces antibodies to neutralize them. These antibodies remain in the body, protecting in case of future exposure to the actual pathogen. By priming the immune system, vaccines help prevent infections, reduce the severity of diseases, and contribute to herd immunity, safeguarding individuals and communities from infectious diseases.

Types of Cattle Vaccines

Killed (Inactivated) Vaccines and Toxoids

Killed vaccines do not utilize live viruses or bacteria. Instead, they contain a completely inactive organism or a specific essential component of the disease-causing virus or bacteria.

The critical distinction between killed and modified live vaccines lies in the absence of replication in killed vaccines. As a result, the immune system does not develop the same level of protective memory with just one dose, which means a booster shot is needed in most cases.

Modified Live Vaccines

Modified Live Vaccine (MLV) is a vaccine that uses non-pathogenic versions of viruses or bacteria. These vaccines contain live viruses or bacteria that replicate in the animal’s body, mimicking the behavior of the actual disease-causing agents but without causing the disease itself.

The replication of the vaccine’s organism triggers a robust immune response, leading to the development of protective immunity with just a single dose of the vaccine. However, since not all animals may respond adequately to the initial vaccination, many protocols recommend booster shots to ensure a higher level of protection.

Some vaccines are a combination of both modified live and killed vaccines, which require a booster.

Routes of Administration

Cattle vaccines are usually administered intranasally via a spray or in the neck region for intramuscular or subcutaneous injection.

Beef Quality Assurance Vaccine Handling Guidelines

Proper vaccine handling ensures the effectiveness and safety of vaccines administered to cattle, as recommended by your veterinarian and Beef Quality Assurance (BQA) guidelines. Store and transport vaccines within the appropriate temperature range, per the medication’s label, and prevent exposure to heat and sunlight. Maintain records of cattle vaccines, including the date, vaccine name, quantity, unit sizes, lot and serial numbers, and expiration dates. Never use expired vaccines. When administering vaccines, use clean and sterile equipment to avoid contamination and properly dispose of used needles and syringes.

Cattle Diseases We Can Prevent Through Vaccination

Core Cattle Vaccines

At a minimum, these are the vaccination cores that we recommend to cover the most common diseases contributing to animal illness and economic losses on cattle farms:

• Respiratory Core:
  • IBR (Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis)
  • BVD Types I and II (Bovine Viral Diarrhea)
  • PI3 (Parainfluenza-3)
  • BRSV (Bovine Respiratory Syncytial Virus)
• Reproductive Core:
  • IBR (Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis)
  • BVD Types I and II (Bovine Viral Diarrhea)
  • Leptospirosis
• Clostridium 7-Way:
  • C. Chauvoei – Blackleg, a severe and fast-acting infection that is nearly always fatal.
  • C. septicum – Causes wounds to become chronically swollen.
  • C. sordellii – Causes gas gangrene and intestinal bleeding, among other conditions.
  • C. novyi – Responsible for ‘black disease,’ a necrotic liver infection.
  • Three types of C. perfringens – Type C causes bloody diarrhea and sudden death in calves. Type D can lead to enterotoxemia in calves. Type B is not a concern in the United States, but 7-way clostridial vaccines usually protect against it.
• Other Risk-Based Clostridium
  • Based on your farm’s location, your veterinarian may prescribe C. haemolyticum (Redwater) and C. tetani (Tetanus) in addition to the 7-way Clostridial vaccine core.

Core Vaccinated Disease Descriptions and Symptoms

Bovine Respiratory Syncytial Virus (BRSV): BRSV is a significant viral pathogen affecting cattle, causing respiratory distress and contributing to the bovine respiratory disease complex. Cattle with BRSV usually have severe coughing, nasal congestion, difficulty breathing, fever, loss of appetite, decreased activity, and pronounced crackling or wheezing lung sounds.

Bovine Viral Diarrhea (BVD): BVDV-1 and BVDV-2 belong to the Pestivirus genus within the Flaviviridae family. They are single-stranded RNA viruses, primarily transmitted via direct contact with infected animals or exposure to contaminated environments. BVD infections commonly cause diarrhea, fevers, nasal discharge, lethargy, reduced appetite, spontaneous abortion, immunosuppression, and respiratory and reproductive impairments. BVDV vaccines have been in use for over 50 years. While they protect against Bovine Viral Diarrhea, research suggests that other preventative measures must be taken along with vaccination.

Clostridium chauvoei (Blackleg): A soil-borne bacterial organism, C. chauvoei infections are very serious and have a nearly 100% mortality rate. The bacterium produces spores that infect cattle when ingested during grazing or in contact with an open wound. The disease is usually fatal within the first 12 – 48 hours after infection. Animals with blackleg typically have a fever, swelling, lameness, lack of appetite, and rapid breathing. As the infection progresses, the cow’s muscles swell out with air pockets that make a crackling or rattling sound.

Clostridium perfringens (Enterotoxemia and Enteritis): Clostridium perfringens infections can manifest as enterotoxemia or “overeating disease,” which is characterized by sudden onset of acute abdominal pain, bloating, diarrhea, and depression. In some cases, affected animals may die rapidly without showing significant clinical signs. The disease is often associated with sudden dietary changes, especially when cattle consume large amounts of high-carbohydrate feed, leading to rapid fermentation and toxin production in the gut.

Clostridium septicum (Malignant Edema): Clostridium septicum is a bacterium known for causing gas gangrene and other severe infections in animals, including cattle. Symptoms may include rapid and painful swelling at the infection site, fever, and toxemia. The bacterium is spread through contaminated wounds or tissues, and it thrives in anaerobic (low oxygen) environments.

Clostridium sordellii (Gas Gangrene): Clostridium sordellii is a bacterium that can cause serious infections in animals and humans. The symptoms of infection may vary, but they often include fever, abdominal pain, and signs of toxemia. In severe cases, the infection can lead to life-threatening conditions like toxic shock syndrome or severe soft tissue infections. Clostridium sordellii is commonly found in the environment and can enter the body through contaminated wounds, surgical procedures, or reproductive events like abortion or postpartum complications. Proper wound care, hygiene measures, and prompt medical attention are essential to manage Clostridium sordellii infections effectively and prevent severe outcomes.

Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis (IBR): More commonly referred to as “red-nose,” this severe illness infects the cow’s upper respiratory and reproductive health. IBR symptoms usually include coughing, nasal discharge, labored breathing, fever, conjunctivitis, lethargy, reduced appetite, spontaneous abortions or stillbirth, decreased milk production, and neurological impairments in more severe cases.

Parainfluenza 3 (PI3): PI3 is a common respiratory pathogen among cattle, which can lead to mild to severe symptoms. Cattle with PI3 may present with coughing, rapid or difficult breathing, and nasal and eye discharge. In more severe cases, PI3 infections can progress into pneumonia, inflammation of the lungs.

Cattle Vaccines Based on Regional Disease Prevalence and Risk

Brucella Abortus (Brucellosis): Brucellosis, also known as Bang’s disease or contagious abortion, is a bacterial infection caused by Brucella abortus. In cattle, brucellosis primarily leads to reproductive issues, such as abortion, stillbirths, and infertility. Infected cows may experience late-term abortions or deliver weak and nonviable calves. The bacteria spreads through contact with contaminated tissues, fluids, or placental material from infected animals during calving or breeding.

Campylobacter fetus (Vibriosis): Campylobacter fetus is a bacterial pathogen that causes genital campylobacteriosis, known as vibriosis, which can lead to reduced fertility and reproductive failure in cows and bulls. C. fetus is mainly transmitted through breeding or artificial insemination. Infected bulls can carry the bacteria in their reproductive tract and transmit it to cows during mating. The bacteria can cause inflammation of the reproductive organs, leading to conditions such as endometritis – inflammation of the uterus – and abortion in pregnant cows.

Clostridium haemolyticum (Redwater): C. haemolyticum is a bacterial pathogen that can cause severe and often fatal disease in cattle, known as bacillary hemoglobinuria, Redwater disease, or bacillary hematuria. This bacterium is present in the soil and environment and typically enters the bloodstream through ingestion or wounds. The organism releases toxins that destroy red blood cells, leading to hemolysis – rupture of red blood cells – and the release of hemoglobin into the urine, giving it a characteristic reddish appearance. Bacillary hemoglobinuria is a rapid and acute disease, and affected cattle may exhibit symptoms such as sudden onset of fever, anemia, dark red or brown urine, weakness, and death if left untreated.

Clostridium tetani (Tetanus): C. tetani is a bacterium that causes tetanus, a life-threatening disease in cattle. The bacterium, commonly found in soil, enters the cow’s body through wounds and produces a potent neurotoxin that affects the nervous system, leading to muscle stiffness and spasms, particularly in the jaw and neck. These spasms can progress to affect the entire body, resulting in difficulty walking, severe pain, and difficulty eating and drinking. 

Coliform Mastitis: Vaccination against coliform mastitis is one of the strategies dairy farmers use to reduce the incidence and severity of infections, often resulting in reduced milk production and altered milk quality. Coliform mastitis vaccines work by stimulating the cow’s immune system to produce antibodies against specific antigens present on the surface of Gram-negative coliform bacterial organisms. When the vaccinated cow is exposed to coliform bacteria, the antibodies recognize and neutralize the invading pathogens, helping to prevent or reduce the severity of the infection. 

Coronavirus (BCoV): Bovine coronavirus (BCoV) is a type of coronavirus that primarily affects cattle. It is a member of the Coronaviridae family and is closely related to other coronaviruses that infect animals and humans. Bovine coronavirus can cause various clinical manifestations, including respiratory and digestive symptoms. Respiratory symptoms may include nasal discharge, coughing, and difficulty breathing, while enteric symptoms may manifest as diarrhea, dehydration, and reduced appetite. Bovine coronavirus infections are widespread in young calves, and outbreaks usually occur in crowded or stressful conditions, such as in calf-rearing facilities or feedlots.

Escherichia coli for K-99 Strain: To prevent K-99 strain E. coli diarrhea, which commonly affects calves within the first week of life, vaccination can be administered to the dam using approved vaccines during late gestation for both beef and dairy cows. Another approach is providing E. coli antibodies orally to the calf through bolus or gel at birth. The USDA also approves these oral antibodies for calves. Utilizing these vaccines and antibodies can effectively mitigate the impact of disease challenges posed by K-99 E. coli diarrhea in calves.

Histophilus somni: Histophilus somni is a bacterium that can cause several diseases in cattle, collectively referred to as Histophilosis. It is a significant pathogen associated with cattle respiratory, reproductive, and systemic infections. In respiratory infections, H. somni can contribute to bovine respiratory disease, causing symptoms like fever, nasal discharge, coughing, and pneumonia. In reproductive infections, the bacterium can lead to infertility, abortion, and stillbirths in pregnant cows. H. somni can also cause systemic infections affecting various organs, including joints and the central nervous system, leading to arthritis and meningoencephalitis.

Leptospira Species: Leptospirosis is a bacterial infection that affects cattle and other animals, including humans. Leptospira bacteria spread via the urine of infected animals, which can contaminate soil and water sources. Lepto infections can lead to various symptoms, such as fever, loss of appetite, reduced milk production, jaundice, and reproductive issues, including abortion and stillbirth.

Mannheimia haemolytica: M. haemolytica is a bacterial pathogen that can cause respiratory infections in cattle, primarily affecting the lungs and leading to a disease known as bovine respiratory disease (BRD). This bacterium significantly contributes to BRD, a complex and costly health concern for the cattle industry. M. haemolytica is commonly found in the upper respiratory tract of healthy cattle but can become pathogenic and cause disease under certain conditions, such as stress, viral infections, or exposure to adverse environmental factors. Once the bacterium becomes virulent, it can damage the respiratory tissues, leading to pneumonia and associated clinical signs such as coughing, nasal discharge, rapid breathing, and fever.

Moraxella Bovis and Moraxella Bovoculi (Pinkeye): Pinkeye, also known as infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis, is a common and highly contagious eye infection in cattle. It is characterized by inflammation of the conjunctiva and cornea, leading to redness, tearing, squinting, and eventually if left untreated, ulceration and clouding of the eye. Several approved vaccines are available for Mycoplasma bovis, commonly in the form of liquid injectables or pellets. Although these biologic products undergo experimental challenge studies for licensure, the effectiveness of M. bovis vaccination to prevent infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis (IBK) in real-world field conditions lacks strong support from published controlled clinical trials.

Mycoplasma bovis: Mycoplasma bovis is a significant contributor to respiratory disease, mastitis, and arthritis in cattle, leading to considerable morbidity and mortality. Although several M. bovis bacterins are approved for cattle use, their efficacy has not been convincingly supported by published controlled field trials, especially in dairy calves and stocker or feedlot cattle. While experimental challenge studies show promise, the translation to real-world field trials has not yielded the desired effectiveness.

Pasteurella multocida: P. multocida is a primary bacteria associated with bovine respiratory disease. P. multocida is naturally present in the upper respiratory tract of cattle and many other animals. However, it can become pathogenic and cause disease when the animal’s immune system is compromised or other factors, such as stress or viral infections, weaken its defenses. When it becomes virulent, P. multocida can lead to pneumonia and other respiratory symptoms, such as coughing, nasal discharge, and labored breathing.

Rabies: Rabies in cattle is a rare but fatal viral disease that affects the nervous system. Infected cattle may exhibit behavioral changes, such as aggression or extreme nervousness, followed by paralysis and death. Vaccination against rabies in cattle is not as common as it is for companion animals and horses. However, it should be carefully considered in regions with a high risk of rabies outbreaks, as well as for cattle that have frequent interactions with humans, such as show cattle or those in petting zoo exhibits.

Rotavirus: Bovine rotavirus is a viral infection that affects cattle, particularly calves. Bovine rotavirus primarily targets the small intestine, leading to gastroenteritis, characterized by diarrhea, dehydration, and reduced nutrient absorption. The virus is highly contagious and spreads through the feces of infected animals. Calves are especially susceptible, with outbreaks often occurring in areas of intensive calf rearing.

Salmonella Species: Salmonella infections pose significant health risks for beef and dairy herds, leading to high morbidity and mortality in cattle of all ages. Implementing enhanced sanitation measures, regular testing, appropriate treatment, and culling strategies can be effective in reducing or eradicating Salmonella. However, the use of vaccination to prevent and control Salmonella infections in beef and dairy farms has yielded mixed results in scientific studies, necessitating careful consideration by bovine practitioners. A 2015 study suggests that vaccinating dry cows can lead to the transfer of antibodies to calves via passive immunity. Still, the extent of protection against Salmonella challenge remains unclear and requires further investigation.

It’s important to note that even if your cattle have a mild infection, they can become immunosuppressed and more susceptible to bacterial co-infections that can progress into pneumonia, stunted growth, brain infections, reproductive disorders, reduced milk supply, and death. Proactive vaccinations help prevent and control infectious diseases, reducing the risk of illness, mortality, and economic losses.

Cattle Vaccination Schedules

Note: These beef and dairy cattle vaccination schedules provide a basic template, but discussing your vaccination schedule with your veterinarian is essential.

Beef Cattle Vaccination Schedule

Purchased Calves (Preconditioned/Backgrounded)

• None required. Preconditioned/backgrounded calves should have received their initial vaccinations and 3-4 week boosters before purchase. Annual vaccinations are recommended as they reach maturity.

Purchased Calves (Transport/Stockyard) *Vaccinate within 24 hours of arrival

• IBR (Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis)
• PI3 (Parainfluenza-3)
• BRSV (Bovine Respiratory Syncytial Virus)
• BVD (Bovine Viral Diarrhea)
• 7-Way Clostridial Group
• Annual vaccines once they reach maturity

Purchased Calves (No Preconditioning) *Vaccinate within 24 hours of arrival

• IBR (Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis)
• PI3 (Parainfluenza-3)
• BRSV (Bovine Respiratory Syncytial Virus)
• BVD (Bovine Viral Diarrhea)
• 7-Way Clostridial Group
• M. haemolytica (Pasteurella) based on risk
• Annual vaccines once they reach maturity

Newborns

• Calves less than four days old have a limited immune response to vaccines. Neonatal immunization is not indicated if the dam has received proper pre-breeding and calving vaccinations and if the calf intakes adequate colostrum at birth. Neonatal vaccinations may be indicated if the dam is unvaccinated, but these cases require individual disease risk analysis with your veterinarian prior to administration. Management practices, such as sanitation at calving, are the most critical risk mitigation for this age group. Depending on the disease status of the farm, diarrheal and respiratory disease vaccines may be discussed.

2 – 4 Months of Age

• IBR (Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis)
• PI3 (Parainfluenza-3)
• BRSV (Bovine Respiratory Syncytial Virus)
• BVD (Bovine Viral Diarrhea)
• 7-Way Clostridial Group
• M. haemolytica (Pasteurella) based on risk
• P. multocida based on risk

Pre-Weaning (14-21 days prior)

• IBR (Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis)
• PI3 (Parainfluenza-3)
• BRSV (Bovine Respiratory Syncytial Virus)
• BVD (Bovine Viral Diarrhea)
• 7- or 8-Way Clostridial Group
• Leptospirosis 5-Way
• Brucellosis (Bangs) for replacement heifers

Cows / Replacement Heifers

• Annual Vaccines: IBR, PI3, BRSV, Clostridial Group 7-Way
• 2-4 Weeks Before Calving: Booster core vaccines if needed, using only killed vaccines.
• 2-4 Weeks Before Breeding: IBR, PI3, BRSV, Clostridial Group 7-Way, Leptospirosis 5-Way

Bulls

• Annual IBR, PI3, BRSV, Clostridial Group 7-Way
• Leptospirosis 5-Way
• 2-4 Weeks Before Breeding: Based on risk, administer Vibriosis (Campylobacter fetus) and Trichomoniasis vaccines

Dairy Cattle Vaccination Schedule

Newborns

• IBR (Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis)
• PI3 (Parainfluenza-3)
• BRSV (Bovine Respiratory Syncytial Virus)
• BVD (Bovine Viral Diarrhea)
• E. coli and Salmonella vaccines based on risk
• Bovine Rotavirus and Bovine Coronavirus based on risk

4 – 6 Weeks

• IBR, BVD, PI3, BRSV Boosters
• 7- or 8-Way Clostridial Group
• Leptospirosis 5-Way
• H. somni (Histophilus) based on risk

Heifers: Pre-Breeding

• IBR (Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis)
• PI3 (Parainfluenza-3)
• BVD (Bovine Viral Diarrhea)
• BRSV (Bovine Respiratory Syncytial Virus)
• Leptospirosis 5-Way
• 7- or 8-Way Clostridial Group
• Vibriosis (Campylobacter fetus) based on risk

Dairy Cows & Heifers: 1 – 2 Months Pre-Calving

• IBR (Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis)
• PI3 (Parainfluenza-3)
• BVD (Bovine Viral Diarrhea)
• BRSV (Bovine Respiratory Syncytial Virus)
• Leptospirosis 5-Way
• Vibriosis (Campylobacter fetus) based on risk
• Optional Calf Scours: Rotavirus, Coronavirus, C. perfringens Type C and D

Dairy Cows & Heifers: 3 Weeks Pre-Calving

• Calf Scours: Rotavirus, Coronavirus, C. perfringens Type C and D
• Coliform Mastitis Vaccines based on risk

For more general information and clinical recommendations, please talk to your veterinarian. The American Association of Bovine Practitioners also released AABP Vaccination Guidelines in 2021 with more information.

Cattle Vaccine Side Effects

We expect to see temporary side effects post-vaccination. Anytime an animal’s immune system is activated, its body expends extra energy to support the development of new antibodies. Individual responses vary, but we generally expect cattle to mildly display:

• Elevated body temperature.
• Depression.
• Reduced appetite and food consumption.
• Temporary drop in production parameters.

Uncommon But Potential Adverse Reactions to Vaccination

• Hypersensitivity: Hypersensitivity in cattle refers to an exaggerated and abnormal immune response to a particular antigen, often resulting in allergic reactions or inflammatory conditions. Common symptoms of hypersensitivity include skin rashes, itching, hives, swelling, difficulty breathing, and in severe cases, anaphylactic shock.
• Injection Site Reactions: Most localized reactions result from vaccine misuse or contamination. Symptoms of injection site reactions in cattle can include localized swelling, pain, redness, heat, and the formation of nodules or abscesses at the injection site. In some cases, cattle may also show signs of lameness or reluctance to move due to discomfort. Following the Beef Quality Assurance’s vaccination protocols is an excellent way to minimize the risk of injection site reactions.

Cattle Vaccine Aftercare and Nutrition

While vaccination is crucial for herd health, its effectiveness relies on the animal’s immune system responding to it, which, in turn, depends on proper nutrition comprising energy, protein, and mineral supplementation. Even well-vaccinated calves have succumbed in the feed yard due to deficient pre-shipment mineral nutrition, emphasizing the importance of essential minerals, including copper, selenium, and zinc.

In cases of forage deficiencies, it is vital to incorporate proper supplementation through a balanced diet or free-choice mineral mix, ensuring the immune system functions optimally. Collaborating with your veterinarian to review forage, supplement, and mineral nutrition programs to safeguard your herd’s health and prevent disease outbreaks is essential.